An Interior Ellis Island

(Chin 1) For the standard work on Asian Americans, see Ronald Takaki’s Strangers from a Different Shore: A History of Asian Americans, New York: Penguin Books, 1990.

(Chin 2) The Thirteenth Census of the United States, Vol I. Population, General Nativity, and Foreign Population.

(Chin 3) H. M. Lai, “Chinese,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Stephen Thernstrom, ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 218.

(Chin 4) H. M. Lai, “Chinese,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Stephen Thernstrom, ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 219.

(Chin 5) Timothy O’Neil, "Miners in Migration: The Case of Nineteenth-Century Irish and Irish American Copper Miners," in New Directions in Irish American History, Kevin Kenny, ed., (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2003) 133.

(Chin 6) H. M. Lai, “Chinese,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, 220.

(Chin 7) Bernard P. Wong, “Chinese,” in American Immigrant Cultures: Builders of a Nation, David Levinson and Melvin Ember, eds. (New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1997), 156.

(Chin 8) Polk’s Houghton County Directory, (Detroit: R.L. Polk and Co.), volumes from 1895 to 1912.

(Chin 9) Bernard P. Wong, “Chinese,” in American Immigrant Cultures: Builders of a Nation, 159.

(Chin 10) The Thirteenth Census of the United State: 1910--Population, Manuscript for Village of Red Jacket.

(Chin 11) The Thirteenth Census of the United State: 1910--Population, Manuscript for Village of Red Jacket.

(Chin 12) Arthur W. Thurner, Strangers and Sojourners: A History of Michigan’s Keweenaw Peninsula ( Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994) 153.

(Chin 13) Arthur W. Thurner, Strangers and Sojourners: A History of Michigan’s Keweenaw Peninsula ( Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994) 153.

(Chin 14) Alma W. Swinton, I Married a Doctor: Life in Ontonagon, Michigan from 1900-1919 (Marquette, MI, 1964) quoted in Thurner, Strangers and Sojourners, 335.

(Cornish 1)
A.L. Rowse reprinted in Arthur Thurner, Calumet, Copper and People: history of a Michigan mining community, 1864-1970 (Chicago: The Author, 1974), p14.

(Cornish 2)
It is important to note that the history of “Cornish mining” generally includes mineral extraction and processing in the English counties of both Cornwall and Devon. Although often overshadowed by notoriety of its neighboring county, Devon has historically accounted for a larger percentage of the metals produced from Southwestern England. Literature concerning Cornish immigrants to Michigan often intermingles people from both counties, thoughr examination confirms several “Cornish mining captains” who were born and raised in Devonshire. For a concise overview of Cornish mining and its decline, see John Rowe, “Cornish,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups (Cambridge, Mass.” Belknap Press, 1980), p244, and A.L. Rowse, The Cousin Jacks: The Cornish in America, (New York: Scribner, 1969), p161-166.

(Cornish 4)
Arthur Thurner references this common nickname in (Calumet Copper & People, p27) as does John Rowe (“Cornish,” p244), though Rowe concedes that the phrase “may have far more ancient origins.”

(Cornish 5)
Both Arthur Thurner and James E. Jopling examine the use of Cornish terminology in Michigan’s copper district, though Jopling also acknowledges that the Cornish language evolved from many other Celtic and European sources. See Arthur Thurner, Strangers and Sojourners: A History of Michigan’s Keweenaw Peninsula (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994), p. 332, note 27, and James E. Jopling, “Cornish Miners of the Upper Peninsula,” Michigan History, Vol. XII, May 1928, p559-60.

(Cornish 6)
Arthur Thurner, Calumet Copper and People, p14, and Larry Lankton, Beyond the Boundaries: Life and landscape at the Lake Superior copper mines, 1840-1875 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), p151.

(Cornish 7)
A.L. Rowse, The Cousin Jacks: The Cornish in America (New York: Scribner, 1969), p162.

(Cornish 8)
Larry Lankton, Cradle to Grave: Life, work, and death in the Lake Superior copper mines (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p61-63. The status of Cornish in area mines is also discussed in John Rowe, “Cornish,” p244, and A.L. Rowse, The Cousin Jacks, 168.

(Cornish 9)
Terry S. Reynolds, “The Persistence of Cornish Influence in Regional Methodism: The Case of Grace Methodist of Houghton, 1854-1920,” in New Perspectives on Michigan’s Copper Country, Hancock: Quincy Mine Hoist Association, 2007.

(Cornish 10)
John Rowe (“Cornish,” p245) and Larry Lankton (Cradle to Grave, p229) examine Cornish in the Civil War and the 1913 strike. Clashes between the Cornish and Irish are routinely mentioned in the literature, including A.L. Rowse (The Cousin Jacks, p170) and Arthur Thurner (Calumet Copper and People, p27).

(Cornish 11)
Arthur Thurner includes a detailed report on the 1898 St. George’s Day celebrations in Calumet (Calumet Copper and People, p30-31). For information on the Sons of St. George, see Arthur Thurner, Strangers and Sojourners, p135, and John Rowe (“Cornish,” p245).

(Cornish 12)
John Rowe references Cornish attempts at farming (“Cornish,” p244) as does A.L. Rowse (The Cousin Jacks, p179). Paine quote is carried in Larry Lankton, Cradle to Grave, p246. A useful tool for examining ethnicity is the historical census browser maintained by the University of Virginia library at http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus

(Croat 1) “Croats,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Stephen Thernstrom, ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 247.

(Croat 2) “Croats,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Stephen Thernstrom, ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 247.

(Croat 3) “Croats,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Stephen Thernstrom, ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 249.

(Croat 5) Daniel Cetinich, “Croatians,” in American Immigrant Cultures: Builders of a Nation, David Levinson and Melvin Ember, eds. (New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1997), 191.

(Croat 6) Emily Greene Balch. Our Slavic Fellow-Citizens. New York, Charities Publication Committee, 1910, quoted in Francis E. Clark. “The Croats in Croatia and in America.” in Old Homes of New Americans: The Country and the People of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and Their Contribution to the New World. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1913.

(Croat 7) Cetinich, “Croatians,” American Immigrant Cultures, 191, and The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XIV, Copyright © 1912 by Robert Appleton Company; Online Edition Copyright © 2003 by K. Knight.

(Croat 8) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 61st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1910, S. Document 633, 82-83.

(Croat 9) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 61st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1910, S. Document 633, 121.

(Croat 10) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 61st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1910, S. Document 633, 84.

(Croat 11) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 61st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1910, S. Document 633, 99.

(Croat 12) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 61st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1910, S. Document 633, 96.

(Croat 13) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 61st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1910, S. Document 633,171.

(Croat 14) For a detailed examination of return migration, see: Mark Wyman, Round Trip to America: the Immigrants return to Europe, 1880-1930, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993.

(Croat 15) Croats,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, 249.

(Croat 17) “Croats,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, 249.

(Croat 18) Anna Brock, Chelsea Cole, Erin Klema, Jonathan Pohl, and Jenna Rickmon, “Diversity in Calumet, Michigan, 1910,” research project for Michigan History, Honors Program, Central Michigan University, May 2006, 11.

(Croat 19) Anna Brock, Chelsea Cole, Erin Klema, Jonathan Pohl, and Jenna Rickmon, “Diversity in Calumet, Michigan, 1910,” research project for Michigan History, Honors Program, Central Michigan University, May 2006, 11.

(Croat 20) Alison K. Hoagland, ”The Boardinghouse Murders: Housing and American Ideals in Michigan’s CopperCountry in 1913.” Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture: The Journal of the Vernacular Architecture Forum 11 (2004), 14.

(Croat 21) Alison K. Hoagland, ”The Boardinghouse Murders: Housing and American Ideals in Michigan’s Copper Country in 1913.” Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture: The Journal of the Vernacular Architecture Forum 11 (2004), 14.

(Croat 22) Alison K. Hoagland, ”The Boardinghouse Murders: Housing and American Ideals in Michigan’s Copper Country in 1913.” Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture: The Journal of the Vernacular Architecture Forum 11 (2004), 12.

(Croat 23) Calumet and Hecla Mining Company spreadsheet indicating men working underground by nationality on July 14, 1913 and September 29, 1914, Papers of the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, box 350, folder 7, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Croat 24) Calumet and Hecla Mining Company spreadsheet indicating men working underground by nationality on July 14, 1913 and September 29, 1914, Papers of the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, box 350, folder 7, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Croat 25) Calumet and Hecla Mining Company spreadsheet indicating men working underground by nationality on July 14, 1913 and December 15, 1913. Papers of the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, box 350, folder 7, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Croat 26) Calumet and Hecla Mining Company spreadsheet indicating men working underground by nationality on July 14, 1913 and February 29, 1914. Papers of the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, box 350, folder 7, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Croat 27) Calumet and Hecla Mining Company spreadsheet indicating men working underground by nationality on July 14, 1913 and February 29, 1914. Papers of the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, box 350, folder 7, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Croat 30) New York Times, 8 December 1913 and Boston Globe, 8 December 1913

(Croat 31) Diana Paiz Engle, “Standing Tall with Big Annie,” Michigan History Magazine, July-August 1999, 17.

(Croat 32) Jerry Stanley, Big Annie of Calumet: a True Story of the Industrial Revolution, New York: Knopf Books for Young Readers, 1996, and Virginia Law Burns, Tall Annie: A Biography, New York: Enterprise Press, 1987.

(Croat 33) Houghton County Articles of Incorporation, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University and Polk’s Houghton County Directory, (Detroit: R.L. Polk and Co.), volumes from 1895 to 1912.

(Croat 34) Houghton County Articles of Incorporation, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University and Polk’s Houghton County Directory, (Detroit: R.L. Polk and Co.), volumes from 1895 to 1912.

(Croat 35) Houghton County Articles of Incorporation, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University and Polk’s Houghton County Directory, (Detroit: R.L. Polk and Co.), volumes from 1895 to 1912

Finns
(Finn 1) John Kolehmainen, “The Finnish Immigrant Experience in the United States,” in Finnish Diaspora II: United States, Michael Karni, ed., The Multicultural History Society of Ontario, Toronto 1981, p. 3.

(Finn 2) John Kolehmainen, “The Finnish Immigrant Experience in the United States,” in Finnish Diaspora II: United States, Michael Karni, ed., The Multicultural History Society of Ontario, Toronto 1981, p. 2.

(Finn 3) Armas K. E. Holmio, History of the Finns in Michigan, translated by Ellen M. Ryynanen. Philip P. Mason & Charles K. Hyde, eds., Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 2001, p. 54.

(Finn 4) John Kolehmainen, “The Finnish Immigrant Experience in the United States,” in Finnish Diaspora II: United States, Michael Karni, ed., The Multicultural History Society of Ontario, Toronto 1981, p.152.

(Finn 5) Armas K. E. Holmio, History of the Finns in Michigan, translated by Ellen M. Ryynanen. Philip P. Mason & Charles K. Hyde, eds., Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 2001. p. 65.

(Finn 6) Armas K. E. Holmio, History of the Finns in Michigan, translated by Ellen M. Ryynanen. Philip P. Mason & Charles K. Hyde, eds., Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 2001. p. 57 & 64.

(Finn 7) O. K. Kilpi, “Statistics of Population,” Finland: The Country, Its People and Institutions, Helsinki, 1926, p. 96.

(Finn 8) A. William Hoglund, Finnish Immigrants in America, 1880-1920, New York, Arno Press “Scandinavians in America” collection, 1979, p. 3.

(Finn 9) A. William Hoglund, “Finns,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Stephan Thernstrom, ed., Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press 1980, p. 364.

(Finn 10) A. William Hoglund, “Finns,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Stephan Thernstrom, ed., Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press 1980, p. 364.

(Finn 11) Armas K. E. Holmio, History of the Finns in Michigan, translated by Ellen M. Ryynanen. Philip P. Mason & Charles K. Hyde, eds., Wayne State University Press, Detroit, 2001, p. 364.

(Finn 12) Arnold R. Alanen & Suzanna E. Raker, “From Phoenix to Pelkie: Finnish Farm Buildings in the Copper Country,” in New Perspectives on Michigan’s Copper Country, A.K. Hoagland, E.C. Nordberg & T.S. Reynolds, eds., Quincy Mine Hoist Association, Inc., Hancock, Michigan 2007, p. 52.

(Finn 13) A. William Hoglund, “Finns,” in Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Stephan Thernstrom, ed., Cambridge, Mass., Belknap Press 1980, p. 364.

(Finn 14) Matti Kaups as cited by Arnold R. Alanen & Suzanna E. Raker, “From Phoenix to Pelkie: Finnish Farm Buildings in the Copper Country,” in New Perspectives on Michigan’s Copper Country, A.K. Hoagland, E.C. Nordberg & T.S. Reynolds, eds., Quincy Mine Hoist Association, Inc., Hancock, Michigan 2007, p. 52.

(Finn 15) Matti Kaups as cited by Arnold R. Alanen & Suzanna E. Raker, “From Phoenix to Pelkie: Finnish Farm Buildings in the Copper Country,” in New Perspectives on Michigan’s Copper Country, A.K. Hoagland, E.C. Nordberg & T.S. Reynolds, eds., Quincy Mine Hoist Association, Inc., Hancock, Michigan 2007, p. 52.

(Finn 16) Larry Lankton, Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines, New York, Oxford University Press, 1991, p. 212.

(Finn 17) Larry Lankton, Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines, New York, Oxford University Press, 1991, p. 213.

(Finn 18) James MacNaughton to Charles Nagel, Secretary of Commerce and Labor, 15 June 1912; and to William Williams, Commissioner of Immigration, 20 June 1912; referenced by Larry Lankton, Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines, New York, Oxford University Press, 1991, p. 213.

(Finn 19) Arnold R. Alanen, “Finns and the Corporate Mining Environment of the Lake Superior Region,” Michael G. Karni, ed., Finnish Diaspora II: United States, The Multicultural History Society of Ontario, Toronto 1981.

(Finn 20) Arnold R. Alanen & Suzanna E. Raker, “From Phoenix to Pelkie: Finnish Farm Buildings in the Copper Country,” in New Perspectives on Michigan’s Copper Country, A.K. Hoagland, E.C. Nordberg & T.S. Reynolds, eds., Quincy Mine Hoist Association, Inc., Hancock, Michigan 2007, p. 53.

(Finn 21) Arnold R. Alanen & Suzanna E. Raker, “From Phoenix to Pelkie: Finnish Farm Buildings in the Copper Country,” in New Perspectives on Michigan’s Copper Country, A.K. Hoagland, E.C. Nordberg & T.S. Reynolds, eds., Quincy Mine Hoist Association, Inc., Hancock, Michigan 2007, p. 52.

(Finn 22) Arnold R. Alanen & Suzanna E. Raker, “From Phoenix to Pelkie: Finnish Farm Buildings in the Copper Country,” in New Perspectives on Michigan’s Copper Country, A.K. Hoagland, E.C. Nordberg & T.S. Reynolds, eds., Quincy Mine Hoist Association, Inc., Hancock, Michigan 2007, p. 54.

(Finn 23) Arnold R. Alanen & Suzanna E. Raker, “From Phoenix to Pelkie: Finnish Farm Buildings in the Copper Country,” in New Perspectives on Michigan’s Copper Country, A.K. Hoagland, E.C. Nordberg & T.S. Reynolds, eds., Quincy Mine Hoist Association, Inc., Hancock, Michigan 2007, p. 53.

(Finn 24) Gordon J. Mattila, Stories of the Early Years; The Mattila Farm, Toivola, Michigan, 1904-2004, Atlantic Mine, Mich., Shenanigan Press, 2004, p. 2.

(Finn 25) Vihtori Kuusisto, “Memoirs of Vihtori Kuusisto,” Paimen-Sanomia, March 15, 1920 in the Finlandia University, Finnish-American Heritage Center and Archives collections.

(Finn 26) Arnold R. Alanen & Suzanna E. Raker, “From Phoenix to Pelkie: Finnish Farm Buildings in the Copper Country,” in New Perspectives on Michigan’s Copper Country, A.K. Hoagland, E.C. Nordberg & T.S. Reynolds, eds., Quincy Mine Hoist Association, Inc., Hancock, Michigan 2007, p. 53.

(Fren 1) Samuel Champlain was a French navigator and explorer who played a key role in establishing French settlements in Quebec while exploring, trading, and consolidating relations with the Montagnais, Huron, and other Native peoples. One of the most important figures in Canadian history, Champlain was born in Brouage in 1567 and died in Quebec in 1635.

(Fren 2) John P. DuLong argues somewhat more precisely that the two waves occurred 1660-1796 and 1840-1930. See DuLong, French Canadians in Michigan (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2001), 3.

(Fren 3) Elliott Robert Barkan, “French Canadians,” in the Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Stephan Thursnstrom (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press), 389.

(Fren 5) Acadians are a French Canadian people distinct from Quebecois. Settled in the 17th century, L’Acadie was composed of territory in today’s provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward Island. Acadians tried to remain neutral during the many political shifts of the 18th century. When France ceded Acadia to Great Britain in the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) they officially became British subjects, but in 1754 most refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Crown when it was asked of them. Their neutrality in question, the British governor decided to deport them in what is known as the Great Expulsion, or Grand Dérangement. This event is commemorated in Canada on July 28.

(Fren 6) Ibid., 390. Most French Canadians watched the American Revolution with neutral, albeit interested, eyes. By defeating France in Canada, the British claimed control of the fur trade, which was of immense significance to the French Canadian economy and way of life. Furthermore, the Quebec Act guaranteed protection of French Canadian interests and their Catholic faith during a time when many Americans held anti-Catholic beliefs. See DuLong, 11, for an elaboration.

(Fren 7) For an informative read on early French and French Canadian exploration in the Great Lakes region, see Carl O. Sauer, Seventeenth Century North America. Berkeley: Turtle Island, 1980.

(Fren 10) Wayne County’s French Canadian population in 1900 was 4,426; Houghton County numbered 3,144. By comparison, Baraga County claimed 374, Ontonagon 218, and Keweenaw County a mere 155. All historic census statistics were obtained from the Geospatial and Statistical Data Center, University of Virginia Library.
http://fisher.lib.virginia.edu/collections/stats/histcensus/php/newlong2.php

(Fren 11) Clarence Monette, The History of Lake Linden, Michigan. (Lake Linden, MI: n.p., 1977), 2.

(Fren 12) Locally pronounced as “Gregory.” He has been called the father of the Lake Superior French Canadians. See Dulong, 22.

(Fren 14) Arthur W. Thurner, Strangers and Sojourners (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994), 111.

(Fren 19) Barkan argues that “without priests…the Franco-American ethnic group would never have existed.” (p. 392). Whether that is true or not is debatable, but the various local French Canadian parishes all seem to have been established with French Canadian priests. For example, Calumet’s St. Anne’s was constructed under the direction of Reverend J. R. Boissonault, and the first priest at St. Joseph’s Church in Lake Linden was Reverend Francis Heliard. Reverend Napoleon Raymond oversaw the construction of the 1912 church building. See Monette and also www.pasty.com/heritage/ for a brief description of the history of St. Anne’s.

(Fren 20) Evelyn Othote Glesener interview, courtesy of the National Park Service, Keweenaw National Historical Park, Oral History Project Collection, KEWE Cat. # 40525.

(Fren 21) Barkan, “French Canadians,” 392-393, offers another description of this tradition.

(German 1) Jeremy Kilar, “Germans,” in American Immigrant Cultures: Builders of a Nation, David Levinson and Melvin Ember, eds. (New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1997), 316.

(German 2) Kathleen Nelis Conzen, “Germans,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Stephen Thernstrom, ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 409.

(German 3) Kathleen Nelis Conzen, “Germans,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Stephen Thernstrom, ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 409.

(German 4) Kilar, “Germans,” in American Immigrant Cultures: Builders of a Nation, 316.

(German 5) Kilar, “Germans,” in American Immigrant Cultures: Builders of a Nation, 316.

(German 6) Conzen, “Germans,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, 410.

(German 7) The Ninth Census of the United States, 1870, Manuscript, Houghton County, Michigan.

(German 8) Patrick H. O’Brien, Interview by Robert M. Warner, 16 October 1957, Michigan Historical Collection, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 3.

(German 9) Patrick H. O’Brien, Interview by Robert M. Warner, 16 October 1957, Michigan Historical Collection, Bentley Historical Library, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 3.

(German 10) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 61st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1910, S. Document 633.

(German 11) Houghton County Articles of Incorporation, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University and Polk’s Houghton County Directory, (Detroit: R.L. Polk and Co.), volumes from 1895 to 1912.

(German 12) Houghton County Articles of Incorporation, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University and Polk’s Houghton County Directory, (Detroit: R.L. Polk and Co.), volumes from 1895 to 1912.

(German 13) Thirteenth Census of the United States, Vol. I: Population 1910, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913; Fourteenth Census of the United States, Vol. III: Population 1920, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1922; and Fifteenth Census of the United States, Vol. III: Population 1930, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1932.

(German 14) Ninth Census of the United States, Vol. I: The Statistics of the Population of the United States, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1872; Statistics of the Population of the United States at the Tenth Census, (1880) Washington: Government Printing Office, 1883; Report on the Population of the United States at the Eleventh Census: 1890, Part I, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1895; Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900, Census Reports, Volume I, Part I, Washington, DC: United States Census Office, 1901; and Thirteenth Census of the United States, Vol. I: Population 1910, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913.

(German 15) Thirteenth Census of the United States, Vol. I: Population 1910, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1913; Fourteenth Census of the United States, Vol. III: Population 1920, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1922; and Fifteenth Census of the United States, Vol. III: Population 1930, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1932.

(Irish 1) The Seventh Census of the United States, 1850, Manuscript, Houghton County, Michigan.

(Irish 2) The Ninth Census of the United States, 1870, Manuscript, Houghton County, Michigan.

(Irish 3) William Culver and Cornel J. Reinhart, "The decline of a mining region and mining policy: Chilean copper in the nineteenth century in Thomas Greaves and William Culver, ed., Miners and Mining in the Americas (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985), 70.

(Irish 4) William Culver and Cornel J. Reinhart, "The decline of a mining region and mining policy: Chilean copper in the nineteenth century in Thomas Greaves and William Culver, ed., Miners and Mining in the Americas (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985), 71.

(Irish 5) As would later be the case in America, Cornish miners provided the technical experience for the Irish copper industry and their privileges in housing, food, and wages caused animosity among the native Irish work force.

(Irish 6) Willis F. Dunbar, Michigan: a History of the Wolverine State (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1965), 358.

(Irish 7) Willis F. Dunbar, Michigan: a History of the Wolverine State (Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1965), 358.

(Irish 8) Arthur Cecil Todd, The Cornish Miner in America (Glendale, California: Arthur H. Clark Company, 1967) 242.

(Irish 9) The Ninth Census of the United States, Vol. 1: Population, Selected Nativity By Counties, 359.

(Irish 10) Top ten counties with the highest percent of those of Irish birth: 1) Suffolk, MA (21.8), 2) New York, NY (21.4), 3) Hudson, NJ (19.4), 4) Stoory, NV (18.9), 5) Kings, NY (18.6), 6) Houghton, MI (17.8), 7) San Francisco, CA (17.3), 8) Providence, RI (17.3), 9) Middlesex, MA (16.8) and 10) New Havan, CN (16.1) (source: Ninth Census of the United States, Vol. I. Population, selected Nativity By Counties, 345-376).
David Emmons, The Butte Irish: Class and Ethnicity in an American Mining Town, 1875-1925, (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1989), 17.

(Irish 11) Houghton County Articles of Incorporation, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Irish 12) Michigan Hibernian: Organ of the A.O.H and the L.A.O.H in Michigan, March 1907, in Ethnic Groups and Societies—Irish, Copper Country Vertical File, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Irish 13) Michigan Hibernian: Organ of the A.O.H and the L.A.O.H in Michigan, March 1907, in Ethnic Groups and Societies—Irish, Copper Country Vertical File, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Irish 14) Michigan Hibernian: Organ of the A.O.H and the L.A.O.H in Michigan, March 1907, in Ethnic Groups and Societies—Irish, Copper Country Vertical File, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Irish 15) Michigan Hibernian: Organ of the A.O.H and the L.A.O.H in Michigan, March 1920, in Ethnic Groups and Societies—Irish, Copper Country Vertical File, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Irish 16) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 61st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1910, S. Document 633, 95.

(Irish 17) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 98-99.

(Irish 18) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 119.

(Irish 19) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 80.

(Irish 20) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 129.

(Irish 21) Employment Record Cards, Quincy, 1890-1920, Papers of Quincy Mining Company, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Irish 22) Calumet and Hecla Mining Company spreadsheet indicating men working underground by nationality on July 14, 1913 and September 29, 1914, Papers of the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, box 350, folder 7, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Irish 23) Calumet and Hecla Mining Company spreadsheet indicating men working underground by nationality on July 14, 1913 and September 29, 1914, Papers of the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, box 350, folder 7, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Ital 1) Humbert S. Nelli, “Italians,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Stephen Thernstrom, ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 545.

(Ital 2) Diane C. Vecchio, “Italians,” in American Immigrant Cultures: Builders of a Nation, David Levinson and Melvin Ember, eds. (New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan, 1997), 475.

(Ital 3) Nelli, “Italians,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, 547.

(Ital 4) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 61st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1910, S. Document 633, 80.

(Ital 5) Nelli, “Italians,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, 547.

(Ital 6) See: Miners, Merchants and Midwives: Michigan’s Upper Peninsula Italians, Marquette, Michigan: Bell Fontaine Press, 1987 and Italians in Michigan, East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2001

(Ital 7) Cristina Menghini, “Examining Patterns of Italian Immigration to Michigan’s Houghton County, 1860-1930,” MS Thesis, Department of Social Sciences, Michigan Technological University, 2004.

(Ital 8) Cristina Menghini, “Examining Patterns of Italian Immigration to Michigan’s Houghton County, 1860-1930,” MS Thesis, Department of Social Sciences, Michigan Technological University, 2004, 17.

(Ital 9) This included the village of South Range, Atlantic Mine, Baltic Mine, Painesdale and Trimountain.

(Ital 10) Cristina Menghini, “Examining Patterns of Italian Immigration to Michigan’s Houghton County, 1860-1930,” MS Thesis, Department of Social Sciences, Michigan Technological University, 2004, 61.

(Ital 11) Cristina Menghini, “Examining Patterns of Italian Immigration to Michigan’s Houghton County, 1860-1930,” MS Thesis, Department of Social Sciences, Michigan Technological University, 2004, 40.

(Ital 12) Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900, Census Reports, Volume I, Part I, Washington, DC: United States Census Office, 1901.

(Ital 13) Twelfth Census of the United States, 1900, Census Reports, Volume I, Part I, Washington, DC: United States Census Office, 1901.

(Ital 14) Fourteenth Census of the United States, Vol. III: Population 1920, Washington: Government Printing Office, 1922.

(Ital 15) Nelli, “Italians,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, 547.

(Ital 16) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 61st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1910, S. Document, 171.

(Ital 17) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 61st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1910, S. Document, 170

(Ital 18) Houghton County Articles of Incorporation, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University and Polk’s Houghton County Directory, (Detroit: R.L. Polk and Co.), volumes from 1895 to 1912.

(Ital 19) Cristina Menghini, “Examining Patterns of Italian Immigration to Michigan’s Houghton County, 1860-1930,” MS Thesis, Department of Social Sciences, Michigan Technological University, 2004, 79.

(Ital 20) Cristina Menghini, “Examining Patterns of Italian Immigration to Michigan’s Houghton County, 1860-1930,” MS Thesis, Department of Social Sciences, Michigan Technological University, 2004, 81.

(Ital 21) Cristina Menghini, “Examining Patterns of Italian Immigration to Michigan’s Houghton County, 1860-1930,” MS Thesis, Department of Social Sciences, Michigan Technological University, 2004., 79.

(Ital 22) Diane C. Vecchio, “Italians,” in American Immigrant Cultures: Builders of a Nation, 481.

(Ital 23) Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 61st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1910, S. Document, 92.

(Ital 24) Vincensa Galetti Feather, An account as delivered to the Italian Study Group of Troy, Michigan, November 1984, Copper Country Vertical: Ethic Groups and Societies: Italians, Copper Country Historical Collections, Michigan Tech University, Houghton, Michigan.

(NatAm 1) Susan Martin, Wonderful Power: The Story of Ancient Copper Working in the Lake Superior Basin (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999), 78. Martin’s book is one of the very few that offers a comprehensive, scholarly examination of the area prior to European arrival.

(NatAm 2) One of the problems for archaeologists in the Keweenaw is that industrial mining operations were built directly over pre-contact sites, thus obliterating evidence of pr e-contact occupation and mining. This is compounded by modern collectors and hobbyists who also destroy the integrity of sites by finding and removing artifacts from their original locations. One can only guess at the amount of information we have lost, and the number of questions that will remain answered, because of these activities. See Wonderful Power for a discussion of this issue.

(NatAm 3) Wilcomb E. Washburn and Bruce G. Trigger, “Native Peoples in Euro-American Historiography,” in The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas, vol. 1, North America, Part 1, eds. Bruce G. Trigger and Wilcomb E. Washburn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 62.

(NatAm 4) Russell Magnaghi addressed this in his work A Guide to the Indians of Michigan’s Upper Peninsula 1621-1900 (Marquette, MI: Belle Fontaine Press, 1984). The publication provides a welcome chronology of events relating to Native North Americans, but no analysis; the author intended his work to be a starting point and guide for future studies.

(NatAm 5) See Larry D. Lankton, Cradle to Grave: Life, Work, and Death at the Lake Superior Copper Mines (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991) and Arthur W. Thurner, Strangers and Sojourners: A History of Michigan’s Keweenaw Peninsula (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994). Lankton’s approach is temporal, and his focus is on industry, while Thurner is more spatially oriented and presents a history of the peninsula itself. Thurner also offers a more detailed look at Ojibway culture.

(NatAm 6) Lankton, Cradle to Grave, viii. See also Larry D. Lankton and Charles K. Hyde, Old Reliable: An Illustrated History of the Quincy Mining Company (Hancock, MI: The Quincy Mine Hoist Association, Inc.), 1982.

(NatAm 7) Henry F. Dobyns, “Introduction,” in The Settling of North America: The Atlas of the Great Migrations into North America from the Ice Age to the Present, ed. Helen Hornbeck Tanner (New York: Macmillan, 1995), 12. The author makes that claim with reference to the Meadowcroft Rockshelter near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, which has been radiocarbon dated approximately 19 thousand to 13 thousand years BP. Although experts debate the dates, it is certainly among one of the oldest archaeological sites in North America. See http://www.mnsu.edu/emuseum/archaeology/sites/northamerica/meadowcroft.html for more information.

(NatAm 8) The Settling of North America, 12.

(NatAm 9) The Settling of North America, 20. Scientists debate the role humans played in the Pleistocene extinctions, as there were likely many factors that influenced the process. For example, the use of Clovis points seems to have coincided with a drought that likely negatively impacted large game populations.

(NatAm 10) The Settling of North America, 22.

(NatAm 11) Dates and population estimates were obtained from The Settling of North America, 26-27, and online at Wikipedia, 6 September 6, 2005. See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cahokia and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztalan_State_Park,_Wisconsin for more information.

(NatAm 12) Susan Martin, Wonderful Power: The Story of Ancient Copper Working in the Lake Superior Basin (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999), 16.

(NatAm 13) Susan Martin, Wonderful Power: The Story of Ancient Copper Working in the Lake Superior Basin (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999), 142. See also John R. Halsey, ed., Retrieving Michigan’s Buried Past: Archaeology of the Great Lakes State (Cranbrook Institute of Science: Bloomfield Hills, Michigan, 1999), 183-184.

(NatAm 14) Susan Martin, Wonderful Power: The Story of Ancient Copper Working in the Lake Superior Basin (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999), 143.

(NatAm 15) Susan Martin, Wonderful Power: The Story of Ancient Copper Working in the Lake Superior Basin (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1999), 153.

(NatAm 16) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztalan_State_Park,_Wisconsin See also Martin for a thorough discussion of Great Lake’s human occupation patterns of various archaeological time periods.

(NatAm 17) The Settling of North America, 28.

(NatAm 18) Visit http://whc.unesco.org/pg.cfm?cid=31&id_site=4 for more information.

(NatAm 19) The Settling of North America, 34.

(NatAm 20) The Settling of North America, 42.

(NatAm 21) For the definitive discussion of the impact of European diseases on aboriginal populations, read Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900. 2nd Ed. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004).

(NatAm 22) The Settling of North America, 31.

(NatAm 23) M. Nieves Zedeño et al., “Final Report: Traditional Ojibway Resources in the Western Great Lakes: An Ethnographic Inventory in the States of Michigan, Minnesota, and Wisconsin,” (University of Arizona in Tucson, Bureau of Applied Research in Anthropology, 2001), 27.

(NatAm 24) M. Nieves Zedeño et al., “Final Report…”, 26-27. According to Ron Morton and Carl Gawboy, the form depends on the subject: ‘Ojibwe’ is used when discussing cultural things, ‘Chippewa’ in political and formal contexts, and Anishinabe ‘is what the Ojibwe call themselves, one Ojibwe to another.’ See Ron Morton and Carl Gawboy, Talking Rocks: Geology and 10,000 Years of Native American Tradition in the Lake Superior Region (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 67.

(NatAm 25) Zedeño et al., 26.

(NatAm 26) Zedeño et al., 26.

(NatAm 27) Zedeño et al., 28-29.

(NatAm 28) Zedeño et al., 42-43. Unless otherwise indicated, all ethnographic information comes from the Ojibway ethnography prepared by Zedeño et al.

(NatAm 29) Morton and Gawboy, 73.

(NatAm 30) Morton and Gawboy, 71.

(NatAm 31) Zedeño et al., 50.

(NatAm 32) Zedeño et al.., 48.

(NatAm 33) Arthur W. Thurner, Strangers and Sojourners: A History of Michigan’s Keweenaw Peninsula (Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1994), 20.

(NatAm 34) Zedeño et al., 66.

(NatAm 35) Zedeño et al., 67.

(NatAm 36) Zedeño et al., 67.

(NatAm 37) Much like historians, who organize the past into time periods of similar cultures and events in order to aid our understanding of the past (for example, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, and the Gilded Age), archeologists divide prehistory into a chronology of traditions based on similarities and differences in materials found at archaeological sites. Traditions are further divided into phases. Broadly speaking, the Paleoindian tradition begins approximately 9500 years before present (BP), and leads into various stages of the Archaic tradition (roughly 8000 BP) and the Woodland tradition (some 2000 BP). During the Historic tradition (500-1000 BP), many of the First Nations we know today were established. See Martin, 142.

(NatAm 38) Carl O. Sauer, Seventeenth Century North America (Turtle Island: Berkeley, 1980), 121. See also Russell M. Magnaghi, A Guide to the Indians of Michigan’s Upper Peninsula (Marquette, MI: Belle Fontaine Press, 1984), 1.

(NatAm 39) Sauer, 123. According to Radisson, the beavers had felled so many trees that there was not enough to build a fire. The portage route is followed to this day, but by the Portage Lake ship canal instead of overland trail.

(NatAm 40 )Sauer, 132-133. One of the early missions included Saint-Esprit, which was established by Father Claude Allouez in 1655 for the Ottawa and Huron living at Chequamegon Bay in 1665. Another Jesuit missionary, Father Rene Menard, tried to establish a mission at Keweenaw Bay in 1661 but was unsuccessful. See Magnaghi, 2-3.

(NatAm 41) Sauer, 30.

(NatAm 42) Zedeño et al., 30.

(NatAm 43) Zedeño et al., 32.

(NatAm 44) Magnaghi’s work offers a comprehensive chronology that will not be duplicated here.

(NatAm 45) Zedeño et al., 36.

(NatAm 46) Zedeño et al., 36.

(NatAm 47) It is important to recognize that treaties are legally binding agreements made between sovereign nations. Understanding treaty history is complicated by their number, purposes, and the territories to which they pertain. The Treaty of 1836 concerned land in the Upper and Lower peninsulas of Michigan; 1837’s ceded territory in parts of Wisconsin and Minnesota; 1842’s ceded land in northern Wisconsin and the western UP, including the Keweenaw Peninsula; and the Treaty of 1854 ceded land northeast Minnesota. Many reservations were also created by this treaty. Tribal rights to fish, hunt, and gather on ceded lands were important guarantees of many treaties, including the Treaty of 1842. See the Great Lakes Indian Fish & Wildlife Commission publication “Treaty Rights,” 2004 edition.

(NatAm 48) The Keweenaw Bay Indian Community (KBIC) was established in 1936; the Keweenaw Bay Reservation was developed in 1854 following the Treaty of 1854. See “Treaty Rights” and www.coppercountry.com/KBIC.php for information about the establishment of the community and reservation.

(NatAm 49) Zedeño et al., 37.

(NatAm 50) In 1836, Schoolcraft received complaints for unfairly distributing treaty goods to his Ojibway in-laws; Schoolcraft’s wife, Jane Johnston, was the daughter of Wabo-jeeg, an Ojibway chief. See Magnaghi, 43.

(NatAm 51) Magnaghi, 40.

(NatAm 52) Magnaghi, 40.

(NatAm 53) Zedeño et al., 39.

(NatAm 54) Henry Schoolcraft, as cited in Magnaghi, 36.

(NatAm 55) A small piece of native copper was recovered from a burial site in south-central Alberta that dates from 2800 years BP, and is currently on exhibit at the Royal Alberta Museum in Edmonton. Analysis at the University of Alberta confirmed that it was native copper from the Great Lakes. According to Jack Brink, archaeologist at the Museum, the piece was likely “traded through intermediary cultures into the northern plains.” Email correspondence with Jack Brink, 1 September 2005.

(NatAm 56) Martin, 157.

(Pol 1) John J. Bukowczyk, And My Children did not Know Me: A History of Polish Americans. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987), 11.

(Pol 2)John J. Bukowczyk, And My Children did not Know Me: A History of Polish Americans. (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1987), 12.

(Pol 3)Victor Green, “Poles,” in The Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, Stephen Thernstrom, ed. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 792.

(Pol 4)Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 61st Cong., 2nd Sess., 1910, S. Document 633, 82-83.

(Pol 5)David Siwik, “International Labor Migration into Michigan: The Polish-Immigrant Communities of Saginaw, Kalamazoo and the Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan, 1910-1930,” MA Thesis, Department of History, Central Michigan University, 2005.

(Pol 6)David Siwik, “International Labor Migration into Michigan: The Polish-Immigrant Communities of Saginaw, Kalamazoo and the Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan, 1910-1930,” MA Thesis, Department of History, Central Michigan University, 2005, 83.

(Pol 7)David Siwik, “International Labor Migration into Michigan: The Polish-Immigrant Communities of Saginaw, Kalamazoo and the Keweenaw Peninsula of Michigan, 1910-1930,” MA Thesis, Department of History, Central Michigan University, 2005, 85.

(Pol 8)Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 120.

(Pol 9)Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 121.

(Pol 10)Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 96.

(Pol 11)Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 171.

(Pol 12)For a detailed examination of return migration, see: Mark Wyman, Round Trip to America: the Immigrants return to Europe, 1880-1930, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993.

(Pol 13)Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry, 171.

(Pol 14)Senate Committee on Immigration, Reports of the Immigration Commission: Immigrants in Industry,, 101.

(Pol 16)Calumet and Hecla Mining Company spreadsheet indicating men working underground by nationality on July 14, 1913 and February, 1914, Papers of the Calumet and Hecla Mining Company, box 350, folder 7, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Pol 17)Calumet and Hecla Mining Company spreadsheet indicating men working underground by nationality on July 14, 1913 and September 29, 1914.

(Pol 18)Calumet and Hecla Mining Company spreadsheet indicating men working underground by nationality on July 14, 1913 and February 1914.

(Pol 19)Calumet and Hecla Mining Company spreadsheet indicating men working underground by nationality on July 14, 1913 and February 1914.

(Pol 20)Employment Record Cards, Quincy, 1890-1920, Papers of Quincy Mining Company, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Pol 21)Employment Record Cards, Quincy, 1890-1920, Papers of Quincy Mining Company, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Pol 22)Employment Record Cards, Quincy, 1890-1920, Papers of Quincy Mining Company, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Pol 24)Polk’s Houghton County Directory 1899-1900, (Detroit: R.L. Polk and Co. 1899).

(Pol 25)Houghton County Articles of Incorporation, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Pol 26)Polk’s Houghton County Directory 1899-1900, (Detroit: R.L. Polk and Co. 1899).

(Pol 27)Houghton County Articles of Incorporation, Copper Country Historical Collection, Michigan Tech University.

(Slov 1) Rudolph Susel, “Slovenes,” in the Harvard Encyclopedia of American Ethnic Groups, ed. Stephan Thurnstrom (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1980), 934.

(Slov 2) Daniel Cetinich, South Slavs in Michigan (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2003), 35.

(Slov 3) Timothy L. Smith as cited in Matjaz Klemencic, “Slovene Settlements in the United States of America,” http:www2.arnes.si/`krsrd1/conference/Speeches/Klemencic_slovene_settlements_in_the_unite.htm, accessed 14 July 2005.

(Slov 7) See the Articles of Association of the Slovenian Catholic St. Joseph Benevolent Society of Calumet, 9 June 1883. MTU Archives and CCHC.

(Slov 8) Zunich did not remember which newspaper her father worked for. It is possibly the aforementioned Amerikanski Slovenec (American Slovene), which was the newsletter of the Kranjska Slovenska Katoliska Jednota (Carniolan Slovenian Catholic Union) established in 1894. See the Mary Zunich interview, courtesy of the National Park Service, Keweenaw National Historical Park, Oral History Project Collection, KEWE Cat. # 40525.

(Slov 9) Village of Calumet records still on file at the Village office do not indicate which individual proposed the change. It seems to have been a commonly held idea. Meeting minutes from Saturday March 23, 1929 record that the council supported the name change because “much confusion arises from time to time from the fact that the Calumet post office is in the Village of Red Jacket,” and that “tourists and other strangers are unable to locate the village of Red Jacket.” A vote to change the name was held June 3rd. Minutes from a special meeting held on June 6 state that Trustee Shaltz moved to declare the election results adopted and the name change approved; it is perhaps this motion to which Zunich refers. Village records may be found at the Village of Calumet office.